Assessing the potential disturbance effects on the use of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UASs) for European vultures research: a review and conservation recommendations

Summary Vultures are among the most threatened bird guilds on planet and have a unique functional role within ecosystems. They therefore subject to increasing research interest, calling for standardised study approaches monitoring methods. The use of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UASs) is rapidly gaining popularity in ecological due technological advances, affordability, accessibility. This reviews existing peer-reviewed publications grey literature responses European vultures other comparable species UASs, summarises types UAS use, their potential disturbance effects vultures, resulting inter- intra-specific interactions. Our goal was assess UASs provide practical recommendations optimise safe vulture conservation research. We acknowledge increase efficiency reduce effort, time, financial cost. Owing absence sufficient data long-term effects, we advocate precautionary principle offer set species-tailored limit negative maximise value management. urge that physiological impacts reproduction considered call protocols controls use. conclusions particularly aimed at researchers working restoration projects worldwide.